Continental Congress

Colonial Continental Congress

Articles of Association -  Extracts from the votes and proceedings of the American Continental Congress [electronic resource] : held at Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. : Containing the bill of rights, a list of grievances, occasional resolves, the Association, an address to the people of Great-Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of the British American colonies. : Published by order of Congress Hartford] : Philadelphia: printed. Hartford: re-printed by Eben. Watson, near the Great-Bridge., [1774], 48 p. ; 22 cm. (8vo) - from the Historic.us Collection.

United Colonies of North America

September 5, 1774 to July 1, 1776

By: Stanley Y. Klos

America’s Four United Republics: 

The More or Less United States

Excerpt Copyright © Stanley Klos 2008 & 2012

Before identifying the Continental Congress junctures in the evolution of the United States and its democracies, we should first consider the term “republic” in its 18^th-Century American context. One of the most important works on the classification of political systems during the 18^th Century was Baron de Montesquieu ’s work; The Spirit of Laws (1748). Montesquieu  defined three kinds of government: republican, monarchical, and despotic. Regarding a confederation republic he averred:

This form of government is a convention by which several smaller states agree to become members of a larger one, which they intend to form. It is a kind of assemblage of societies that constitute a new one, capable of increasing, by means of new associations, till they arrive to such a degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the united body. [1]

From the inception of the United Colonies of America  in 1774 to the Revolutionary War’s concluding Definitive Treaty of Peace in 1784, the 13 Original Colonies and States formed confederation republics that fulfilled Montesquieu ’s requisite “degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the united body. According, then, to the philosophe’s definition, a colonial republic began with the formation of an association titled, Continental Congress: United Colonies of America.

Students and Teachers of US History this is a video of Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. The December 2015 video was an impromptu capture by a member of the audience of Penn students, professors and guests that numbered about 200.

 For More Information go to 
America's Four United Republics

Alexander Hamilton, in the same Federalist letter of November 1787 in which he quotes Montesquieu, goes further by defining the United States of America as a confederacy, stating: 

The definition of a confederate republic seems simply to be "an assemblage of societies," or an association of two or more states into one state. The extent, modifications, and objects of the federal authority are mere matters of discretion. So long as the separate organization of the members be not abolished; so long as it exists, by a constitutional necessity, for local purposes; though it should be in perfect subordination to the general authority of the union, it would still be, in fact and in theory, an association of states, or a confederacy. The proposed Constitution, so far from implying an abolition of the State governments, makes them constituent parts of the national sovereignty, by allowing them a direct representation in the Senate, and leaves in their possession certain exclusive and very important portions of sovereign power. This fully corresponds, in every rational import of the terms, with the idea of a federal government.

In Hamilton’s terms, then, a “confederacy” relies not just on a union of states under some form of federal authority, but likewise the retention by each of these states of their own governmental authorities, both subordinate to and “constituent parts of…national sovereignty.” 

Finally, for our consideration, in 1788, United States in Congress Assembled Delegate James Madison  in Federalist No XXXIX defined the word “republic,” placing clear emphasis on the derivation of its power from the people:

… we may define a republic to be, or at least may bestow that name on, a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of the people, and is administered by persons holding their offices during pleasure, for a limited period, or during good behavior. It is essential to such a government that it be derived from the great body of the society, not from an inconsiderable proportion, or a favored class of it; otherwise a handful of tyrannical nobles, exercising their oppressions by a delegation of their powers, might aspire to the rank of republicans, and claim for their government the honorable title of republic. It is sufficient for such a government that the persons administering it be appointed, either directly or indirectly, by the people; and that they hold their appointments by either of the tenures just specified … [2]

Reflecting upon these definitions by Montesquieu , Hamilton and Madison; this book puts forth the proposition that there were three distinct republics that led to a fourth which is the current government of the United States.  Each Republic is so delineated because it marks a divergent stage in the evolution of the United States; the names designated to each period are derived from the republic’s founding resolution or constitution, as follows:

•  First United American Republic: United Colonies of America: Thirteen British Colonies United in Congress [3] (September 4^th, 1774 to July 1^st, 1776) was founded by 12 colonies[4] under the First Continental Congress and expired under the Second Continental Congress; [5] 

• Second United American Republic: The United States of America:[6] Thirteen Independent States United in Congress[7](July 2^nd, 1776 to February 28^th, 1781) was founded by 12 states[8] in the Second Continental Congress and expired with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation;  

• Third United American Republic: The United States of America: A Not Quite Perpetual Union [9](March 1^st, 1781 to March 3^rd, 1789) was founded by 13 States[10] with the Articles of Confederation’s enactment and expired with the enactment on March 3, 1789, of the U.S. Constitution of 1787;

•  Fourth United American Republic: The United States of America: We the People[11](March 4, 1789 to Present) was formed by 11 states[12]  with the United States Constitution of 1787’s enactment and still exists today.

With the four founding republics now identified, the following nomenclature, derived from the acts of three unicameral and one tripartite governing bodies, is offered for consideration:

·  The First United American Republic Government: The United Colonies of America  Continental Congress  (U.C. Continental Congress ), [13] with the name “Continental Congress” being adopted in the Articles of Association [14]   and “United Colonies of America” being derived from various relations enacted by the aforementioned U.C. Continental Congress ;

·   The Second United American Republic Government: The United States of America Continental Congress  (U.S. Continental Congress ), [15] with the name “Colonies” being changed to “States” by the Declaration of Independence ; [16]   

·  The Third United American Republic Government: The United States in Congress Assembled  (USCA or Confederation Congress), with the name being adopted in the Articles of Confederation ; [17]  

·  The Fourth United American Republic Government: The United States House of Representatives  and Senate in Congress Assembled (Bicameral Congress), The President of the United States of America (U.S. President), United States Supreme Court  (U.S. Supreme Court), with the names all adopted in the Constitution of 1787 . [18] For the purpose of this book the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate in Congress Assembled is abbreviated to the U.S. Bicameral Congress.

Having distinguished the four republics and their governing bodies, we may now examine them one by one to discover if the classifications and nomenclature meet what might become a generally accepted framework for the U.S. Founding period. 

Was Delaware, Virginia, or New Hampshire the first US State?

The origin of the United States’ current tripartite government can be traced back to September 1st, 1774, when deputies from the colonies first met at Philadelphia ’s City Tavern [19] on Second Street, just north of Walnut Street (yes the true birthplace of the Continental Congress and the Presidency was in a Philadelphia tavern).  

Although City Tavern did not host a quorum of colonies, the tavern was the site of the first caucus of congressional delegates on September 1, 1774. The discussions at this tavern meeting were significant as the decision was made, with 25 to 30 delegates present, that the members would wait until September 5th, for the additional delegates to arrive before proceeding to business. Specifically it was agreed that the Delegates would meet "Monday next" at 10 am at City Tavern to discuss where to conduct their first meeting.

Delegate Robert Treat Paine wrote in his diary on September 1, 1774: 

6 o'Clock the Members of the Congress that were in Town met at City Tavern & adjourned to Monday next.

Delegate Samuel Ward recorded in his diary on September 1, 1774: 

The Delegates from N. Jersies & two from Province of N York arrived, conversed with many Delegates & at Evening had a Meeting at the New Tavern & took a List of those present, in all twenty five.

Silas Deane wrote to Elizabeth Deane  on September 1, 1774:

The Delegates from Virginia, Maryland, the Lower Counties, & New York, are not arrived. We spent this Day in visiting Those that are in Town, & find them in high Spirits particularly the Gentlemen from the Jersies, and South Carolina. In the Evening We met to the Number of about Thirty drank a Dish of Coffee together talked over a few preliminaries, & agreed to wait for the Gentlemen not arrived untill Monday Next, before We proceeded to Business.  

 As decided at City Tavern on September 1st, 1774, deputies representing eleven colonies assembled at 10 am at the tavern.  According to Delegate James Duane:

The Members of the Congress met at Smith's [Sic City] Tavern. The Speaker of the Pensylvania Assembly having offerd the Congress the use of the State house; & the Carpenters the use of their Hall, It was agreed to take a View of each. We proceeded to the Carpenter's hall. Mr .Lynch proposed the Question whether as that was in all respects Suitable it ought not to be fixed upon without further Enquiry. 

I observed that if the State house was equally convenient it ought to be preferred being a provincial & the Carpenter's Hall[1] a private House. And besides as it was tenderd by the Speaker it seemed to be a piece of respect which was due to him, at least to enquire whether the State House was not equally convenient. The Question was however called for; & a great Majority fixed upon the Carpenters hall. 

John Adams wrote of the event in his diary: 

Monday. At ten the delegates all met at the City Tavern, and walked to the Carpenters' Hall, where they took a view of the room, and of the chamber where is an excellent library; there is also a long entry where gentlemen may walk, and a convenient chamber opposite to the library. The general cry was, that this was a good room, and the question was put, whether we were satisfied with this room ? and it passed in the affirmative. A very few were for the negative, and they were chiefly from Pennsylvania and New York.   [22]

The deputies who formed the Colonial Congress were not men who enjoyed a national reputation. The colonial population was now surpassing two million inhabitants with no “continental” newspaper or magazine.  Consequently, they were nearly all strangers to each other with most never even having heard the names of their new colleagues.  There were, however, several exceptions. John and Samuel Adams, for example were Boston leaders identified with deep-seated opposition to Great Britain and known all over the colonies. Virginia Militia Colonel George Washington had achieved colonial celebrity through his service with British regulars during the French and Indian War. Peyton Randolph was known as the judicious Virginia House of Burgesses’ Speaker and the Colonial Virginia attorney general who struck down Lt. Governor Dinwiddie’s Pistole Land Tax in a London hearing before the British Lords of Trade.[23]  Patrick Henry was known as an eloquent orator gaining colonial favor from his memorable opposition to the Stamp Act in 1765. There were other delegates who were men of some influence in their colonies, but the new congress had little knowledge of their character. It was a new beginning.

National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Independence Hall Class of 2017 students at Carpenters' Hall with the docent holding a Virginia Three Pound Note signed by the first President of the United Colonies Continental Congress Peyton Randolph AND a 1776 Autograph Letter Signed by Cyrus Griffin the last President of the United States in Congress Assembled. Carly is holding an original 1774 printing of the Articles of Association passed in this hall, which named the Continental Congress. – For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website

The first order of business for the delegates after the presentation of credentials was the election of a presiding officer. Delegate James Duane writes in his notes on the debates:

The Names of the Members were then called over; After which Mr Lynch proposed that we shoud elect a President or Chairman and named Mr Peyton Randolph Speaker of the Assembly of Virginia, who was unanimously approvd & placed in the Chair. A Question was then put what Title the Convention should assume & it was agred that it should be called the Congress. Another Question was put what shoud be the Stile of Mr Randolph & it was agreed that he should be called the President.

Congress next considered the election of a Secretary and Delegate Lynch put forth the name of Charles Thompson.   

Charles Thomson an orphan at 10 established himself through hard work as a Philadelphia merchant and intellectual in the 1750’s. He became embroiled in colonial politics 1760’s aligning himself with the more liberal colonists into the 1770’s which was quite unusual for a businessman. His conservative peers campaigned hard against his election as a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Continental Congress and were successful.  His benefactor, Benjamin Franklin, was a strong supporter for his congressional appointment and despite being then known as the “Samuel Adams of Philadelphia” Thomson was elected unanimously to be the Secretary of the Continental Congress.   

Duane writes:

The next point was to fix on a Clerk or Secretary. Mr Thompson was proposed by Mr Lynch.Mr. Jay observed that he had Authority to say that one of the members of the Congress was willing to accept the Office & he conceived the preference was due to him [him being James Duane]. To which it was answered that such an appointment would deprive the Congress of a Member as he would be too much incumberd by the Duties of a Clerk to attend to the Trust for which he was chosen. The Objection being thought Reasonable Mr Thompson was appointed by the Stile of Secretary of the Congress. 

Thompson would serve in this position in both the Colonial & U.S. Continental Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled for nearly 15 years.

By his political connections, his long tenure of office, and his executive and legislative functions, Thomson influenced the course of congressional and Revolutionary affairs.  “Secretary” was the title given to British to their executive department heads and Thomson was Secretary in that sense and not in sense of a record keeper or file clerk.

After the elections, the members turned to establishing the rules of the new colonial body.  It was not until the following day that the debate concluded and the members voted against forming a rules committee to further consider rules of order.  Instead they enacted the following resolutions on September 6th, 1774, to conduct colonial business:

Resolved, That in determining Questions in this Congress, each Colony or Province shall have one vote.—The Congress not being possessed of, or at present able to procure proper materials for ascertaining the importance of each Colony. Resolved, That no person shall speak more than twice on the same point without leave of the Congress. Resolved, That no Question shall be determined the day on which it is agitated and debated, if any one of the Colonies desire the determination to be postponed to another day. Resolved, That the Doors be kept shut during the time of business, and that the Members consider themselves under the strongest obligations of honour to keep the proceedings secret, until the majority shall direct them to be made publick. Resolved, unanimously, That a Committee be appointed to state the Rights of the Colonies in general, the several instances in which these rights are violated or infringed, and the means most proper to be pursued for obtaining a restoration of them. [25]

The proceedings of this body were deemed private and this “pledge of secrecy” would remain the rule in the successive confederation republics.   Secrecy would also be vowed by delegates thirteen years later during the Philadelphia Convention that framed the U.S. Constitution of 1787 .  Consequently, the debate to determine the name of this new association is not a matter of public record.  Historians are relegated to reviewing delegate letters and colonial resolutions to determine the origin of the name of the association that would go on to enact and direct united colonial measures.

The colonies had individually passed 12 different resolutions naming the Philadelphia  gathering and its membership in various different forms:

New Hampshire … General Congress; Massachusetts  … meeting of Committees from the several Colonies; Rhode Island  … general congress of representatives; Connecticut  … Congress of commissioners; New York  … Congress at Philadelphia ; New Jersey  … general Congress of deputies; Pennsylvania … Colony Committees; Maryland  … General Congress of deputies from the Colonies; Virginia … General Congress; South Carolina  … deputies to a general Congress; Delaware … general continental congress; [26] North Carolina  … general Congress. [27]

It would be Delaware ’s term, a Continental Congress   that was formally adopted on October 20, 1774, by a resolution known as the Articles of Association  that implemented a British trade boycott [28] . The naming of the colonial congress in the Articles of Association can be found in the resolution’s first paragraph:

We, his majesty's most loyal subjects, the delegates of the several colonies of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts -Bay, Rhode-Island, Connecticut , New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania , the three lower counties of Newcastle, Kent and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, and South-Carolina, deputed to represent them in a Continental Congress , held in the city of Philadelphia , on the 5th day of September, 1774. [29]

The name was primarily chosen to distinguish this congress from the many other congresses being held throughout the Colonies at that time.  The terms “Colonies of America,” “United Colonies,” and “Colonies of North America” were all used in 1774 delegate letters, colonial newspapers, and colonial congressional journals.  George Washington’s June 19^th, 1775, Commander-in-Chief Commission, for example, uses the term “United Colonies,” followed by the names of the 13 members of the Continental Congress .  The name, the United Colonies of America , was not introduced as part of a First Continental Congress  resolution until ThomasJefferson’s Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms.

We the representatives of the United Colonies of America  now sitting in General Congress, to all nations send greeting of setting forth the causes and necessity of their taking up arms. [30]  

Jefferson’s 1775 Declaration was edited and approved on July 6^th, adding the word “North” to name the republic, the “United Colonies of North America .” [31]   Two weeks later, Benjamin Franklin would, in Article I of his Articles of Confederation , also utilize the word “north”:

The Name of this Confederacy shall henceforth be the United Colonies of North America. [32]

November 9th, 1775 United Colonies Continental Congress Pledge of Secrecy  - Historic.us Collection

By January 1776, the Continental Congress UCA, as well as the colonies themselves, would drop the word “North,” referring instead to the Continental association as the “United Colonies of America”:

Resolved, By this Assembly, That Roger Sherman , Oliver Wolcott , Samuel Huntington , Titus Hosmer, and William Williams , Esqrs. be, and they are hereby appointed Delegates to represent this Colony at the General Congress of the United Colonies of America . [33]

18^th Century Journal of Congress open to September 5, 1774, recording the convening of the
 First Continental Congress – Image courtesy of the Klos Yavneh Collection.

As can be seen, the aforesaid First Continental Congress ’ resolutions, rules, and various other acts clearly formed “a body of laws” among the colonies, establishing the First United American Republic: The United Colonies of America: Thirteen British Colonies United in Congress . The United Colonies Continental Congress , the new republic’s governing association convened from September 4^th, 1774, to July 2^nd, 1776, passing resolutions, laws and acts necessary to conduct a war to win independence from the British Empire.  Although independence was not declared until July 2^nd, 1776, the United Colonies Continental Congress (U.C. Continental Congress) acted as a quasi-central government, for the 13 Colonies, meeting the definition of a confederation republic as evidenced by a review of key U.C. Continental Congress  Republic milestones, including:

• U.C. Continental Congress measures provoked British Regulars to march out of Boston, attempting the capture of hidden military supplies. In early expeditions, the British were not opposed, found nothing, and returned to Boston. On April 19th, 1775, however, shots were fired during the British advancement on Lexington and Concord, launching the first military engagement of the Revolutionary War; 
• On May 10th, 1775, Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York; 
• On June 15th, 1775, the U.C. Continental Congress appoints George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army;
• On July 6th, 1775 the U.C. Continental Congress approves a United Colonies of North America Declaration … Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms against Great Britain; On June 17th, 1775, the Battle of Breed's Hill forces the retreat of the Colonial Minutemen; 
• On June 22nd, 1775, the U.C. Continental Congress issues two million dollars in continental currency to fund the war effort;
• On July 21st, 1775, the U.C. Continental Congress considers Benjamin Franklin’s Articles of Confederation as a possible constitution for the United Colonies of North America; 
• On November 13th, 1775, Major General Richard Montgomery occupies Montreal Canada;
• On December 31st, 1775, General Montgomery is killed in the Battle for Quebec City and American troops retreat from Canada;
• On March 17th, 1776. The Continental Army led by General Washington forces the British to evacuate Boston;

Journals of the Continental Congress 
United Colonies of North America  - 1774

September 1774

September 5, 1774 (Monday):
The First Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia. Delegates from twelve colonies (all except Georgia) meet at Carpenter's Hall to address growing tensions with Britain. Peyton Randolph of Virginia is elected President of the Congress, and Charles Thomson of Pennsylvania is chosen as Secretary. The credentials of the delegates from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina are read and approved. The Congress aims to discuss the grievances against British policies and plan a collective response.

September 6, 1774 (Tuesday):
Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, arrives and attends the session. The Congress adopts rules of order to govern its proceedings, ensuring orderly debate and decision-making. It is agreed to begin each session with prayers, and Reverend Jacob Duché of Philadelphia is invited to officiate. Thomas Johnson, Jr., from Maryland, also attends for the first time.

September 7, 1774 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to draft a statement of the rights of the colonies, document the violations of those rights by British policies, and propose measures to restore them. Another committee is tasked with examining British statutes affecting colonial trade and manufacturing, to identify how those laws have harmed the colonies. Peyton Randolph, as President, is given the authority to adjourn Congress from day to day when no business is under consideration.

September 12, 1774 (Monday):
Matthew Tilghman, a delegate from Maryland, arrives to participate in the sessions. Congress continues to deliberate over colonial grievances and discuss the best way to approach negotiations with Britain, while still avoiding an outright call for independence.

September 14, 1774 (Wednesday):
William Hooper and Joseph Hewes, delegates from North Carolina, arrive, as does Henry Wisner from Orange County, New York. George Ross from Pennsylvania and John Alsop from New York also join the sessions. Delegates from Massachusetts present a report on the proceedings of a recent meeting held by committees from the towns of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, which had convened at Concord in late August to oppose the Intolerable Acts imposed by Britain.

September 17, 1774 (Saturday):
Richard Caswell from North Carolina joins the Congress. The resolutions passed by Suffolk County, Massachusetts, on September 6 (known as the Suffolk Resolves) are presented to Congress. The Suffolk Resolves denounce the Intolerable Acts and call for the colonies to resist British rule. Congress votes to approve the Suffolk Resolves, signaling strong support for Massachusetts in its confrontation with British authority. It also recommends that contributions from all colonies continue to provide relief to the people of Boston, suffering under the British-imposed blockade.

September 19, 1774 (Monday):
Congress refers the Suffolk Resolves to the committee appointed to state the rights of the colonies. This committee continues its work to articulate the specific rights the colonies believe are being violated and how they will defend them.

September 22, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress issues a recommendation to merchants in all colonies to cease placing orders for goods from Britain, part of a larger plan to institute a boycott of British imports. This is a significant step toward economic resistance. A report from the committee on colonial rights is presented to the Congress and read, and copies are made for distribution to the colonies.

September 24, 1774 (Saturday):
The report from the committee on colonial rights is considered by Congress, but the delegates decide to limit their focus to specific rights infringed since 1763 (the end of the French and Indian War), postponing discussion of broader American rights to a future date. A report on the infringements of American rights is brought in by the committee, but consideration is deferred as Congress shifts to deliberating on the means of restoring those rights.

September 26, 1774 (Monday):
John Herring from Orange County, New York, arrives and joins the proceedings. Congress resumes its consideration of measures for restoring colonial rights, focusing on nonviolent means of resistance to British policies, including economic boycotts.

September 27, 1774 (Tuesday):
After further deliberation, Congress adopts a resolution prohibiting the importation of all goods, wares, and merchandise from Great Britain or Ireland after December 1, 1774, and any products imported after that date are banned from use or sale in the colonies. This resolution is a key part of the broader non-importation agreement.

September 28, 1774 (Wednesday):
A resolution is introduced by Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, declaring that the colonies abhor the idea of becoming independent communities. Galloway also presents his Plan of Union, which proposes a federal system where the colonies would have a representative body that works with Parliament, while remaining under British rule. This plan is debated as an alternative to complete resistance.

September 29, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress continues to debate Galloway’s Plan of Union, but many delegates are skeptical of any plan that would leave colonial autonomy too dependent on the goodwill of the British government.

September 30, 1774 (Friday):
The debate on Galloway’s Plan of Union continues, but no final decision is reached. Congress adopts a resolution banning the exportation of goods from the colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies, effective September 1, 1775, unless the colonies' grievances are addressed before then. A committee is appointed to prepare a plan to enforce the non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation resolutions.

President Peyton Randolph

October 1774

October 1, 1774 (Saturday):
Simon Boerum from Kings County, New York, attends for the first time. Congress continues to consider the means of restoring colonial rights. A committee is appointed to draft an address to King George III, requesting redress of the colonies' grievances.

October 3, 1774 (Monday):
Instructions are given to the committee drafting the address to the King. Congress discusses what should be included in the address, particularly which colonial grievances to emphasize.

October 4, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress continues to deliberate on the content of the address to the King, seeking a balance between asserting colonial rights and expressing loyalty to the Crown.

October 5, 1774 (Wednesday):
The discussion on the address to the King continues, and instructions are given to the committee on the address. Congress also receives an address from William Goddard, a publisher and supporter of colonial rights.

October 6, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress resumes consideration of means to restore American rights, with a letter from the Boston Committee of Correspondence laid before Congress. This letter highlights the dire situation in Massachusetts and urges Congress to take further action. Congress agrees to consider the letter the following day.

October 7, 1774 (Friday):
The letter from the Boston Committee of Correspondence is considered. A committee is appointed to draft a letter to British General Thomas Gage, who was enforcing the Intolerable Acts in Massachusetts. This letter seeks to address growing tensions in the colony.

October 8, 1774 (Saturday):
Congress further considers the letter from Boston and approves the opposition of Massachusetts inhabitants to the recent Parliamentary Acts. Congress declares that if these acts are enforced by military force, all of America should come to Massachusetts’ defense.

October 10, 1774 (Monday):
Congress continues its deliberations on the letter from Boston and discusses the possible evacuation of the people of Boston. They agree that if the people are forced to leave, they should be recompensed by all of America for their losses. Congress also advises Massachusetts residents to cease administering justice under British laws and to detest anyone who accepts authority under the new Parliamentary Acts.

October 11, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress drafts a letter to General Gage, advising the people of Boston to act peacefully toward British troops. A committee is appointed to prepare a memorial to the people of British America and an address to the people of Great Britain.

October 12, 1774 (Wednesday):
A plan for enforcing the Non-Importation, Non-Consumption, and Non-Exportation Agreements is presented by the committee, as Congress continues to deliberate on the rights and grievances of the colonies.

October 13, 1774 (Thursday):
The consideration of colonial rights and grievances continues, as Congress refines its strategy for resisting British policies and unifying the colonies around common goals.

October 14, 1774 (Friday):
Congress adopts resolutions formally declaring the rights and grievances of the colonies. These resolutions outline the specific rights the colonies claim and the violations committed by the British government since 1763. A letter from gentlemen in Georgia is read, discussing the situation in that colony.

October 15, 1774 (Saturday):
The Plan of Association is further considered. This plan outlines how the colonies will collectively enforce the boycott of British goods and work together to resist British policies.

October 17, 1774 (Monday):
John Dickinson of Pennsylvania joins the proceedings. Congress continues to refine the Plan of Association, which becomes a key document of collective colonial resistance.

October 18, 1774 (Tuesday):
The Plan of Association is amended and ordered to be transcribed for signing by all members. The association pledges the colonies to enforce a boycott of British goods. An address to the people of Great Britain is also presented to Congress.

October 19, 1774 (Wednesday):
The address to the people of Great Britain is considered, amended, and recommitted for further revision. A memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies is also reported to Congress for consideration.

October 20, 1774 (Thursday):
The Plan of Association is read and signed by all members of Congress. This marks a unified stance among the colonies to economically and politically resist British policies. Congress also continues deliberation on the memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies and considers other issues, including a letter from Quebec.

October 21, 1774 (Friday):
Congress considers an address to the people of Great Britain and a memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies. A committee is appointed to draft letters to the people of Quebec, and other British colonies such as Nova Scotia and Florida. Congress also resolves that any person in America who is seized and transported beyond the sea for trial, as per British policy, should be defended and that such actions should be resisted.

October 22, 1774 (Saturday):
Peyton Randolph, President of Congress, is unable to attend, and Henry Middleton of South Carolina is elected as the new President. Congress receives an address from Christopher Tully and orders its journals to be printed. Congress also resolves that a second Continental Congress will be held on May 10, 1775, unless colonial grievances are redressed before that date.

President Henry Middleton
Painting by Benjamin West 

October 24, 1774 (Monday):
Congress receives and debates an address to the people of Quebec, which is then recommitted for further revision. The address to the King is also reported back to Congress.

October 25, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress approves the address to the King and orders it to be engrossed. The address will be sent to the colonial agents in Britain, who are instructed to present it to the King and seek the assistance of British noblemen who support the cause of American liberty.

October 26, 1774 (Wednesday):
Congress finalizes the letter to the colonial agents and the address to the people of Quebec. The final address to the King is reviewed, and the list of colonial agents and delegates who attended Congress is compiled. Congress resolves that any attempt to transport Americans for trial in Britain should be met with resistance.

October 27, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress continues its final preparations and resolves additional procedural matters before adjourning.

October 28, 1774 (Friday):
The delegates formally dissolve the First Continental Congress, agreeing to reconvene on May 10, 1775, if their grievances are not addressed. This sets the stage for continued colonial resistance and, ultimately, the escalation toward revolution.

Second Continental Congress
United Colonies of North America - 1775

May 1775

May 10, 1775 (Wednesday):
The Second Continental Congress convenes at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, following the convening of the First Continental Congress in 1774. Peyton Randolph is re-elected as President of the Congress, and Charles Thomson is re-elected as Secretary. The Congress immediately resumes discussions on how to respond to escalating tensions with Britain, which had worsened following the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April.

May 17, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to ban exports to British colonies that refuse to join the Continental Association. This resolution is aimed at colonies such as Canada and some Caribbean territories that had not aligned with the growing colonial resistance movement.

May 18, 1775 (Thursday):
News arrives at Congress of the successful capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point by American forces led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. These strategic forts, taken on May 10 and 11, provided the Americans with much-needed artillery for the war effort.

President John Hancock

May 24, 1775 (Wednesday):

Peyton Randolph steps down as President of Congress to attend to his duties in Virginia, and John Hancock of Massachusetts is elected as the new President of the Continental Congress. Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in New England and a prominent leader in the resistance movement.

May 26, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to send a second petition to King George III, known as the Olive Branch Petition, in a final attempt to avoid full-scale war. At the same time, Congress instructs the colonies to prepare for defense, signaling that the colonies should arm themselves and fortify against British attacks.

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June 1775

June 1, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves against launching any "expedition or incursion" into Canada at this time, reflecting the still uncertain military situation and reluctance to provoke Britain further without adequate preparation.

June 2, 1775 (Friday):
Congress receives a proposal from Massachusetts to take up civil government independently of Britain, reflecting the colony’s desire to establish governance as British authority collapses in New England. Massachusetts had been operating under the Intolerable Acts, which had severely curtailed its autonomy.

June 7, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to observe July 20 as a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer, asking the colonies to seek divine guidance and protection in the struggle for liberty.

June 9, 1775 (Friday):
Congress endorses Massachusetts' decision to assume civil authority, effectively recognizing the provincial convention in Massachusetts as the de facto government. This move allows Massachusetts to maintain order and governance in the absence of British control.

June 10, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to create a Continental Army to defend the colonies against British aggression. This decision marks the beginning of a unified colonial military force.

June 15, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints George Washington of Virginia as the commander in chief of the Continental Army. Washington, who had military experience from the French and Indian War, is chosen for his leadership qualities and to unify the southern and northern colonies under a single military command.

June 22, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to emit $2 million in Continental currency to finance the war effort. This is an essential step toward funding the nascent Continental Army and sustaining the colonies' defense.

June 27, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress approves an invasion of Canada, hoping to prevent British forces in Canada from launching attacks on the colonies and to gain support from French Canadians for the colonial cause.

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July 1775

July 5, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress approves the Olive Branch Petition, a final appeal to King George III to intervene in Parliament and restore peace. The petition expresses loyalty to the king but protests Parliament’s oppressive policies.

July 6, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress approves the Declaration on the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, explaining to both the colonies and the world why the colonies had taken up arms against Britain. The declaration argues that the colonies are fighting in self-defense and are being forced into rebellion by British oppression.

July 8, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress approves an address to the inhabitants of Great Britain, explaining the colonies' grievances and justifying their actions. This address is meant to win the sympathy of the British public and pressure Parliament to change its policies.

July 12, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress organizes three departments for managing Indian affairs, recognizing the strategic importance of Native American alliances. These departments are tasked with maintaining relations with Native American tribes in the northern, middle, and southern regions.

July 21, 1775 (Friday):
Congress ignores Benjamin Franklin’s proposed Articles of Confederation, which would have created a formal confederation of the colonies with a central government. Congress was not yet ready to consider such a step toward independence.

July 27, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to establish a system of military hospitals to care for the sick and wounded soldiers in the Continental Army. This decision was crucial for improving medical care and survival rates among troops.

July 31, 1775 (Monday):
Congress adopts a response to British Prime Minister Lord North’s Conciliatory Resolution, which had offered some concessions to the colonies if they would agree to raise revenue for the Crown. Congress rejects the resolution as insufficient and continues to prepare for war.

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August 1775

August 2, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress adjourns for the summer, agreeing to reconvene on September 5. The break allows delegates to return to their colonies to report on the proceedings and assess local conditions.

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September 1775

September 13, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress reconvenes after the summer recess, with Georgia now fully represented in Congress for the first time. This strengthens the unity of the colonies as they move toward coordinated military and political action.

September 19, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a Secret Committee to purchase military supplies abroad. This marks a significant step toward securing foreign aid and weapons to support the Continental Army’s operations.

September 22, 1775 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to consider the state of trade in America, as the ongoing conflict with Britain disrupts commerce and colonial economies. The committee is tasked with assessing how to manage trade and ensure supply lines for both civilian and military needs.

September 27, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the publication of corrected journals to ensure the accuracy and transparency of its proceedings. Publishing the journals is crucial for keeping the public informed and fostering support for Congress’s actions.

September 29, 1775 (Friday):
Congress appoints a Committee of Conference to meet with General Washington and leaders of New England to coordinate military efforts and address the urgent needs of the Continental Army.

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October 1775

October 3, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress receives a proposal from Rhode Island to build an American fleet, reflecting growing interest in establishing a Continental Navy to protect American ports and disrupt British shipping.

October 5, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress recommends that General Washington intercept British supply ships. This recommendation is part of a broader strategy to weaken British forces by cutting off their access to provisions.

October 6, 1775 (Friday):
Congress recommends that provincial governments arrest any persons deemed a danger to "the liberties of America." This directive aims to prevent Loyalists and other enemies of the revolution from undermining the colonial cause.

October 7, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a report on the fortification of the Hudson River, a strategically important waterway that the British could use to divide the colonies. Fortifying the Hudson River was crucial to protecting New York and preventing British advances.

October 13, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to fit out armed vessels, marking the formal establishment of the Continental Navy. A Naval Committee is appointed to oversee the construction and outfitting of ships, the first step toward challenging British naval supremacy.

October 17, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints John Morgan as director general of hospitals, replacing Benjamin Church, who had been arrested for corresponding with the British. Congress also appoints a committee to estimate damages inflicted by British military actions on colonial property and communities.

October 24, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adjourns to attend the funeral of Peyton Randolph, the first President of the Continental Congress. Randolph had passed away in October, and his death marked the loss of a prominent Virginia leader.

October 26, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress publishes a resolution authorizing the export of goods in exchange for arms, recognizing the colonies' need for weapons to sustain the war effort. This export strategy was crucial for securing foreign support.

October 30, 1775 (Monday):
Congress expands the authorization for the Continental Navy by increasing the number of ships and appoints additional members to the Naval Committee. This move strengthens the naval capacity of the colonies and signals the importance of maritime warfare.

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November 1775

November 1, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress reaffirms the general embargo on exports, extending the embargo explicitly to March 1, 1776. Congress also commends provincial authorities for ignoring British parliamentary trade exemptions designed to divide the colonies.

November 2, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to the north to confer with General Philip Schuyler, the commander of American forces in the northern theater. Congress also receives a report from the Committee of Conference, which had met with General Washington.

November 3, 1775 (Friday):
Congress recommends the formation of a new provincial government in New Hampshire, similar to its earlier recommendation for Massachusetts. This reflects the broader breakdown of British authority in the colonies.

November 4, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts resolutions for reconstituting General Washington’s army in Massachusetts and for the defense of South Carolina and Georgia, both of which were facing the threat of British attacks.

November 9, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a new oath of secrecy for its members to protect sensitive military and diplomatic discussions. Congress also publishes a report that the king had refused to receive the Olive Branch Petition, signaling the end of hopes for reconciliation.

November 10, 1775 (Friday):
Congress adopts a plan to promote the manufacture of saltpetre, a key ingredient in gunpowder, and orders the enlistment of the first two battalions of Continental Marines, marking the establishment of the Continental Marines (now the U.S. Marine Corps).

November 13, 1775 (Monday):
Congress orders the publication of new "Rules and Regulations" for the Continental Army, providing a formal code of conduct for soldiers and officers.

November 15, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress receives news of the American victory at Fort St. Johns in Canada, a key strategic point on the route to Montreal, which boosts morale among the delegates.

November 16, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts resolves to improve delegate attendance, addressing concerns about absenteeism during critical discussions. Congress also adopts regulations for the treatment of prisoners of war.

November 22, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes exemptions to the export ban for Bermuda, recognizing the island’s unique strategic importance in the Atlantic trade network.

November 23, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts resolves to improve peaceful relations with the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, aiming to secure Native American neutrality or support in the war.

November 25, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts regulations for prize cases, outlining how captured enemy ships and their goods should be handled. This helps to formalize the rules of naval warfare and privateering.

November 28, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts "Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies," establishing a formal legal framework for naval operations. Congress also adopts measures for the defense of North Carolina, which was facing British military threats.

November 29, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a Committee of Secret Correspondence to handle foreign diplomatic and intelligence matters. It also resolves to emit $3,000,000 in Continental currency to continue funding the war effort. News of the capture of Montreal by American forces is also received.

---

December 1775

December 2, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress sends Benjamin Harrison to Maryland to promote the defense of the Chesapeake Bay, a critical area for trade and military logistics.

December 4, 1775 (Monday):
Congress recommends the formation of a new provincial government in Virginia, similar to the new governments established in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Congress also appoints a committee to dissuade the New Jersey Assembly from separately petitioning the king, urging unity among the colonies.

December 6, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress publishes a response to King George III’s August 23 proclamation, which had declared the colonies in a state of rebellion. This response reinforces the colonies’ grievances and their determination to resist British rule.

December 8, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to confine John Connolly, a Loyalist conspirator who had been plotting with British Governor Lord Dunmore to attack western Virginia. This resolution highlights Congress’s growing concern about internal threats from Loyalists.

December 13, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the construction of 13 ships for the Continental Navy, a significant expansion of naval forces aimed at defending American ports and disrupting British supply lines.

December 14, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints the Marine Committee, which will oversee naval operations, shipbuilding, and the recruitment of sailors for the Continental Navy.

December 15, 1775 (Friday):
Congress receives a plan for creating a committee that will continue to sit during the recess of Congress, ensuring that governance and military decisions can be made even when Congress is not in session.

December 20, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends a cessation of hostilities between Connecticut and Pennsylvania settlers in the Wyoming Valley, where a long-standing territorial dispute was threatening to destabilize the region.

December 22, 1775 (Friday):
Congress authorizes an attack on British forces in Boston and appoints Esek Hopkins as the commander in chief of the Continental Navy.

December 26, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a plan for the redemption of Continental bills of credit, ensuring the financial stability of the Continental currency.

December 29, 1775 (Friday):
Congress adopts resolutions for importing and manufacturing salt, a critical commodity for preserving food and maintaining army provisions.

December 30, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress recommends that the Secret Committee negotiate with Pierre Penet and Emanuel de Pliarne, French arms dealers, to secure European arms and ammunition for the Continental Army. This is an important step toward securing foreign aid.

[1] Charles de Secondat Baron de Montesquieu , De l'esprit des lois.  Translated and cited in Alexander Hamilton, “Federalist IX: The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard against Domestic Faction and Insurrection”, Independent Journal, New York: November 21, 1787.

[2] James Madison, “Federalist XXXIX: Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles.” Independent Journal, New York : January 16, 1788.

[3] The name, the United Colonies of America , was not introduced as part of a Continental Congress  UCA resolution until Thomas Jefferson ’s Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking up Arms.  Although passed as the United Colonies of North America  on July 21, 1775 the word “North” would be dropped by 1776.

[4] Georgia  sent no delegates.

[5] The name” Continental Congress ” was formally adopted by Congress in the Articles of Association dated October 20, 1774.

[6] The name, United States of America was formally adopted by Congress in the Declaration of Independence dated July 4, 1776.

[7] The term “Free and Independent States” was formally adopted by Congress in Richard Henry Lee ’s Resolution  for Independence on July 2, 1776. 

[8] New York did not approved independence from Great Britain  until July 9, 1776.

[9] The term “The Perpetual Union ” was formally adopted by Congress in the Articles of Confederation  on November 15, 1777 and ratified by all 13 States on March 1, 1781.

[10] Although formulated by Congress on November 15, 1777, the Articles of Confederation required unanimous ratification by all 13 states before they could be enacted. By February 1st, 1779 12 states had ratified the Constitution of 1777 .  Maryland delayed its adoption by over two years, ratifying onFebruary 2, 1781.

[11] The term “We the People ” was formally adopted by the Philadelphia  Convention on September 17, 1787 in the preamble to the current U.S. Constitution and ratified by the eleven States forming the new republic by the summer of 1788.

[12] The States of North Carolina  (11/21/1789) and Rhode Island (5/29/1790) did not ratify the Constitution of 1787  until after the government was formed in New York  on March 4, 1789.

[13] The U.S. Continental Congress  is also known as the Second Continental Congress .

[14] “Articles of Association .” .Journals of the Continental Congress , 1774-1789, ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904-37), 19:137, October 20, 1774.  Future references will be to JCC, 1774-1789. 

[15] The U.C. Continental Congress  is also known as the First and Second Continental Congress.

[16] Declaration of Independence , July 4, 1776.  JCC, 1774-1789.

[17] Articles of Confederation , March 1, 1781.  JCC, 1774-1789.

[18] Constitution of the United States, Charters of Freedom, National Archives, http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html

[19] A reconstruction of the City Tavern  is located at 138 South 2nd Street, at the intersection of Walnut Streets in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania.  The original City Tavern  was constructed in 1773 and was partially destroyed by fire on March 22, 1834. In 1854 the original structure was demolished and was reconstructed in 1976 for the United States Bicentennial Celebration.

[20] Letter, NY Committee of 51 to Committee of Correspondence, Boston, May 23, 1774.  Printed in Peter Force, American Archives: Containing A Documentary History Of The United States Of America Series 4, Six Volumes and Series 5..

[21] Carpenters’ Hall is located in the Center City neighborhood of Philadelphia.  The two-story red brick building was completed in 1773 and set back off Chestnut Street with the address of 320.  The building is on the National Register of Historic Places and part of Independence National Historical Park.

[22] John Adams and Charles Francis Adams , The Works of John Adams , Second President of the United States, Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1865, p 365.

[23] Governor Robert Dinwiddie letter to Peyton Randolph ,October 23, 1754.  Printed in John C. Fitzpatrick, editor, The Writings of George Washington  from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799.

[24] The word President in 1774 meant “to preside.”

[25] JCC, 1774-1789, September 6, 1774

[26] Ibid.

[27] JCC, 1774-1789, September 14, 1774

[28] The colonies believed that Great Britain  would redress their grievances, enumerated in the Articles of Association, after they imposed economic sanctions. On December 1, 1774 the colonial boycott became active and trade with England fell sharply.  The British Parliament and King George III responded by enacting on March 30, 1775 the New England Restraining Act which sanctioned the northeastern American colonies: (1) Effective July 1, 1775, New England trade was to be limited to England and the British West Indies; trade with other nations was prohibited. (2) Effective July 20, 1775, New England ships were barred from the North Atlantic fisheries.  This measure improved the colonial Canadian alliance and damaged New England economy.

[29] Articles of Association , JCC, 1774-1789, October 20, 1774.

[30] Ibid., July 6, 1775

[31] Jefferson, Jefferson writes: 1775. June 23. Congress appointed a committee to prepare a Declaration to be published by Genl. Washington on his arrival at the camp before Boston, to wit, J. Rutledge, W. Livingston, Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, and Mr. Johnson.  Thomas Jefferson ., Manuscript letter, Library of Congress .

[32] JCC, 1774-1789, July 21, 1775

[33] JCC, 1774-1789, January 16, 1776.

United Colonies and States First Ladies

1774-1788

United Colonies Continental Congress	President	18th Century Term	Age
Elizabeth "Betty" Harrison Randolph (1745-1783)	Peyton Randolph	09/05/74 – 10/22/74	29
Mary Williams Middleton (1741- 1761) Deceased	Henry Middleton	10/22–26/74	n/a
Elizabeth "Betty" Harrison Randolph (1745–1783)	Peyton Randolph	05/20/ 75 - 05/24/75	30
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)	John Hancock	05/25/75 – 07/01/76	28
United States Continental Congress	President	Term	Age
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)	John Hancock	07/02/76 – 10/29/77	29
Eleanor Ball Laurens (1731- 1770) Deceased	Henry Laurens	11/01/77 – 12/09/78	n/a
Sarah Livingston Jay (1756-1802)	John Jay	12/ 10/78 – 09/28/78	21
Martha Huntington (1738/39–1794)	Samuel Huntington	09/29/79 – 02/28/81	41
United States in Congress Assembled	President	Term	Age
Martha Huntington (1738/39–1794)	Samuel Huntington	03/01/81 – 07/06/81	42
Sarah Armitage McKean  (1756-1820)	Thomas McKean	07/10/81 – 11/04/81	25
Jane Contee Hanson (1726-1812)	John Hanson	11/05/81 - 11/03/82	55
Hannah Stockton Boudinot (1736-1808)	Elias Boudinot	11/03/82 - 11/02/83	46
Sarah Morris Mifflin (1747-1790)	Thomas Mifflin	11/03/83 - 11/02/84	36
Anne Gaskins Pinkard Lee (1738-1796)	Richard Henry Lee	11/20/84 - 11/19/85	46
Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (1747-1830)	John Hancock	11/23/85 – 06/06/86	38
Rebecca Call Gorham (1744-1812)	Nathaniel Gorham	06/06/86 - 02/01/87	42
Phoebe Bayard St. Clair (1743-1818)	Arthur St. Clair	02/02/87 - 01/21/88	43
Christina Stuart Griffin (1751-1807)	Cyrus Griffin	01/22/88 - 01/29/89	36

Constitution of 1787 First Ladies	President	Term	Age
Martha Washington	George Washington	April 30, 1789 – March 4, 1797	57
Abigail Adams	John Adams	March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801	52
Martha Wayles Jefferson Deceased	Thomas Jefferson	September 6, 1782  (Aged 33)	n/a
Dolley Madison	James Madison	March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817	40
Elizabeth Monroe	James Monroe	March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825	48
Louisa Adams	John Quincy Adams	March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1829	50
Rachel Jackson Deceased	Andrew Jackson	December 22, 1828 (aged 61)	n/a
Hannah Van Buren Deceased	Martin Van Buren	February 5, 1819 (aged 35)	n/a
Anna Harrison	William H. Harrison	March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841	65
Letitia Tyler	John Tyler	April 4, 1841 – September 10, 1842	50
Julia Tyler	John Tyler	June 26, 1844 – March 4, 1845	23
Sarah Polk	James K. Polk	March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849	41
Margaret Taylor	Zachary Taylor	March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850	60
Abigail Fillmore	Millard Fillmore	July 9, 1850 – March 4, 1853	52
Jane Means Pierce	Franklin Pierce	March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857	46
Lifelong Bachelor	James Buchanan	n/a	n/a
Mary Todd Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln	March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865	42
Varina Davis*	Jefferson Davis*	February 22, 1862 – May 10, 1865
Eliza McCardle Johnson	Andrew Johnson	April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869	54
Julia Boggs Dent Grant	Ulysses S. Grant	March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877	43
Lucy Ware Webb Hayes	Rutherford B. Hayes	March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881	45
Lucretia  Rudolph Garfield	James A. Garfield	March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881	48
Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur	Chester Arthur	January 12, 1880 (Aged 43)	n/a
Frances Folsom Cleveland	Grover Cleveland	June 2, 1886 – March 4, 1889	21
Caroline  Scott Harrison	Benjamin Harrison	March 4, 1889 – October 25, 1892	56
Frances Folsom Cleveland	Grover Cleveland	June 2, 1886 – March 4, 1889	28
Ida Saxton McKinley	William McKinley	March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901	49
Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt	Theodore Roosevelt	September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909	40
Helen Louise Herron Taft	William H. Taft	March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913	47
Ellen Axson Wilson	Woodrow Wilson	March 4, 1913 – August 6, 1914	52
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson	Woodrow Wilson	December 18, 1915 – March 4, 1921	43
Florence Mabel King Harding	Warren G. Harding	March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923	60
Grace Anna Goodhue Coolidge	Calvin Coolidge	August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929	44
Lou Henry Hoover	Herbert C. Hoover	March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933	54
Eleanor Roosevelt	Franklin D. Roosevelt	March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945	48
Elizabeth Virginia  "Bess" Truman	Harry S. Truman	April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953	60
Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower	Dwight D. Eisenhower	January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961	56
Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy	John F. Kennedy	January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963	31
Claudia Alta Taylor "Lady Bird" Johnson	Lyndon B. Johnson	November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969	50
Thelma Catherine "Pat" Ryan Nixon	Richard M. Nixon	January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974	56
Elizabeth Ann "Betty" Ford	Gerald R. Ford	August 9, 1974 – January 20, 1977	56
Eleanor Rosalynn Carter	James Earl Carter, Jr.	January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981	49
Nancy Davis Reagan	Ronald Wilson Reagan	January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989	59
Barbara Pierce Bush	George H. W. Bush	January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993	63
Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton	William Jefferson Clinton	January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001	45
Laura  Lane Welch Bush	George W. Bush	January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009	54
Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama Melanija Knavs Trump  Jill Tracy Jacobs Biden	Barack H. Obama Donald J. Trump Joseph R. Biden Jr.	January 20, 2009 - January 20, 2017 January 20, 2017 - January 20, 2021  January 20, 2021 - Present	45      46             47

Capitals of the United Colonies and States of America

Philadelphia	Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774	City Tavern & Carpenter’s Hall
Philadelphia	May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776	Pennsylvania State House
Baltimore	Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777	Henry Fite’s House
Philadelphia	March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777	Pennsylvania State House
Lancaster	September 27, 1777	Lancaster  Court House
York	Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778	York-town Court House
Philadelphia	July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783	College Hall - PA State House
Princeton	June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783	Prospect House - Nassau Hall
Annapolis	Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784	Maryland, State House
Trenton	Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784	French Arms Tavern
New York City	Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788	New York City Hall
New York City	October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789	Walter Livingston House
New York City	March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790	Federal Hall
Philadelphia	Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800	Congress Hall
Washington DC	November 17,1800 to Present	Two US Capitol Buildings

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