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| Articles of Association - Extracts from the votes and proceedings of the American Continental Congress [electronic resource] : held at Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. : Containing the bill of rights, a list of grievances, occasional resolves, the Association, an address to the people of Great-Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of the British American colonies. : Published by order of Congress Hartford] : Philadelphia: printed. Hartford: re-printed by Eben. Watson, near the Great-Bridge., [1774], 48 p. ; 22 cm. (8vo) - from the Historic.us Collection. |
USContinentalCongress.com serves as a comprehensive resource for exploring the history and legacy of the United States Continental Congresses, from their inception in 1774 through the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. It offers a wealth of information, including detailed accounts of key events, figures, and documents like the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Olive Branch Petition. The site includes full texts of pivotal writings, high-resolution images of historical artifacts, and analyses of their significance. Additionally, it provides biographical sketches of influential leaders, contextualizes the evolution of America's early governance, and highlights how the Continental Congress laid the foundation for modern American democracy. It is an educational platform aimed at fostering an understanding of this transformative era in American history.
Origins and Evolution of the United States’ Founding Republics
The Concept of a Republic in the 18th-Century American Context
Before identifying the junctures of the Continental Congress in shaping the United States, it is essential to contextualize the term "republic" as understood in 18th-century America. One of the most critical examinations of political systems during this time was Baron de Montesquieu’s The Spirit of Laws (1748). Montesquieu classified governments into three types: republican, monarchical, and despotic. Regarding a confederation republic, Montesquieu asserted:
"This form of government is a convention by which several smaller states agree to become members of a larger one, which they intend to form. It is a kind of assemblage of societies that constitute a new one, capable of increasing, by means of new associations, till they arrive to such a degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the united body." [1]
This foundational principle is evident in the early governance of the United Colonies of America (1774–1784), as the colonies worked collectively under the Continental Congress to secure mutual defense and independence.
Hamilton’s Interpretation of a Confederate Republic
Alexander Hamilton, writing in Federalist No. 9, applied Montesquieu’s framework to define the United States of America as a confederate republic, observing:
"The definition of a confederate republic seems simply to be 'an assemblage of societies,' or an association of two or more states into one state. The extent, modifications, and objects of the federal authority are mere matters of discretion. So long as the separate organization of the members be not abolished; so long as it exists, by a constitutional necessity, for local purposes; though it should be in perfect subordination to the general authority of the union, it would still be, in fact and in theory, an association of states, or a confederacy. The proposed Constitution, so far from implying an abolition of the State governments, makes them constituent parts of the national sovereignty, by allowing them a direct representation in the Senate, and leaves in their possession certain exclusive and very important portions of sovereign power. This fully corresponds, in every rational import of the terms, with the idea of a federal government." [2]
Hamilton’s perspective highlights the balance between centralized federal power and the autonomy of member states, a principle embodied in the Articles of Confederation and later redefined in the U.S. Constitution of 1787.
Madison’s Definition of a Republic
James Madison, in Federalist No. 39, emphasized the derivation of power from the people, defining a republic as follows:
"…we may define a republic to be, or at least may bestow that name on, a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of the people, and is administered by persons holding their offices during pleasure, for a limited period, or during good behavior. It is essential to such a government that it be derived from the great body of the society, not from an inconsiderable proportion, or a favored class of it; otherwise a handful of tyrannical nobles, exercising their oppressions by a delegation of their powers, might aspire to the rank of republicans, and claim for their government the honorable title of republic." [3]
Madison’s insistence on the democratic underpinnings of a republic aligned with the emerging ethos of governance in the United States, where representation and accountability to the people were paramount.
The Four Republics of American Evolution
Reflecting on these definitions by Montesquieu, Hamilton, and Madison, it is evident that the United States’ journey to its current government occurred through four distinct republics. Each republic represents a unique stage in governance, as defined by its founding resolutions or constitutional framework:
First Republic: The United Colonies of America (1774–1776)
- Founding Document: Articles of Association (1774). [14]
- Governing Body: United Colonies Continental Congress (U.C. Continental Congress).
- Key Event: Established to unify 12 colonies (Georgia did not send delegates initially) [4] under a common boycott of British goods. This republic dissolved with the Declaration of Independence in July 1776.
Second Republic: The United States of America (1776–1781)
- Founding Document: Declaration of Independence (1776). [16]
- Governing Body: United States Continental Congress (U.S. Continental Congress).
- Key Event: Marked the formal independence of 13 states, with governance transitioning to the Articles of Confederation in 1781. [17]
Third Republic: The United States in Congress Assembled (1781–1789)
- Founding Document: Articles of Confederation (1781). [17]
- Governing Body: United States in Congress Assembled (USCA).
- Key Event: Aimed for a “perpetual union”, though hampered by weak federal authority, leading to its replacement by the Constitution. [9]
Fourth Republic: The United States of America – “We the People” (1789–Present)
- Founding Document: U.S. Constitution (1787). [11]
- Governing Body: Bicameral Congress, President, Supreme Court.
- Key Event: Established the current federal government structure, emphasizing checks and balances among its branches.
Nomenclature of the Governing Bodies
Each republic was characterized by distinct governing institutions, shaped by foundational documents and resolutions:
- First Republic: United Colonies Continental Congress (U.C. Continental Congress). [13]
- Second Republic: United States Continental Congress (U.S. Continental Congress). [15]
- Third Republic: United States in Congress Assembled (Confederation Congress). [17]
- Fourth Republic: U.S. Bicameral Congress, Presidency, and Supreme Court. [18]
These transitions reflect the progression from a loosely associated confederation to a robust federal union under the guiding principle of popular sovereignty.
Introduction to the Framework of the U.S. Founding Period
Having distinguished the four republics that represent critical stages in the evolution of U.S. governance, we now turn to an in-depth examination of the First Republic: The United Colonies of America (1774–1776). This analysis aims to determine whether the classifications and nomenclature adopted for this period align with a broadly acceptable historical framework.
The Roots of U.S. Governance: The Meeting at City Tavern
The origin of the United States’ current tripartite government can be traced back to September 1, 1774, when colonial deputies convened at City Tavern in Philadelphia, located at Second Street and Walnut Street. This gathering is notable not only as the birthplace of the Continental Congress but also as a precursor to the institutional structures that would define U.S. governance. [19] The tavern, constructed in 1773 and reconstructed in 1976, provided a suitable venue for informal discussions among delegates from 11 of the 13 colonies (Georgia and other delegates from New York and Virginia had not yet arrived).
Despite the absence of a quorum, the gathering was significant for the decisions made. Approximately 25 to 30 delegates agreed to wait for additional representatives to arrive and to reconvene formally on September 5, 1774. They also resolved to use City Tavern as the initial meeting point to discuss logistics.
Delegate Accounts of the City Tavern Meeting
Robert Treat Paine noted:
"6 o'clock the Members of the Congress that were in Town met at City Tavern & adjourned to Monday next." [20]
Samuel Ward recorded in his diary:
"The Delegates from N. Jersies & two from Province of N York arrived, conversed with many Delegates & at Evening had a Meeting at the New Tavern & took a List of those present, in all twenty-five."
Silas Deane, in a letter to his wife Elizabeth, wrote:
"The Delegates from Virginia, Maryland, the Lower Counties, & New York, are not arrived. We spent this Day in visiting Those that are in Town, & find them in high Spirits particularly the Gentlemen from the Jersies, and South Carolina. In the Evening We met to the Number of about Thirty drank a Dish of Coffee together talked over a few preliminaries, & agreed to wait for the Gentlemen not arrived until Monday Next, before We proceeded to Business."
Robert Treat Paine noted:
"6 o'clock the Members of the Congress that were in Town met at City Tavern & adjourned to Monday next." [20]
Samuel Ward recorded in his diary:
"The Delegates from N. Jersies & two from Province of N York arrived, conversed with many Delegates & at Evening had a Meeting at the New Tavern & took a List of those present, in all twenty-five."
Silas Deane, in a letter to his wife Elizabeth, wrote:
"The Delegates from Virginia, Maryland, the Lower Counties, & New York, are not arrived. We spent this Day in visiting Those that are in Town, & find them in high Spirits particularly the Gentlemen from the Jersies, and South Carolina. In the Evening We met to the Number of about Thirty drank a Dish of Coffee together talked over a few preliminaries, & agreed to wait for the Gentlemen not arrived until Monday Next, before We proceeded to Business."
First Continental Congress – Image courtesy of the Klos Yavneh Collection.
On September 5, 1774, delegates reconvened at Carpenter's Hall, a site that remains an enduring symbol of American independence. [21] The selection of the venue followed deliberations on whether to meet at Carpenter's Hall or the Pennsylvania State House. According to James Duane, the debate centered on logistical and symbolic considerations.
- James Duane recounted:
"The Members of the Congress met at Smith's [Sic City] Tavern. The Speaker of the Pensylvania Assembly having offerd the Congress the use of the State house; & the Carpenters the use of their Hall, It was agreed to take a View of each. We proceeded to the Carpenter's hall. Mr .Lynch proposed the Question whether as that was in all respects Suitable it ought not to be fixed upon without further Enquiry. I observed that if the State house was equally convenient it ought to be preferred being a provincial & the Carpenter's Hall a private House."
Ultimately, Carpenter's Hall was chosen for its spaciousness, privacy, and symbolic neutrality.
- John Adams, describing the meeting, wrote:
"Monday. At ten the delegates all met at the City Tavern, and walked to the Carpenters' Hall, where they took a view of the room, and of the chamber where is an excellent library; there is also a long entry where gentlemen may walk, and a convenient chamber opposite to the library. The general cry was, that this was a good room, and the question was put, whether we were satisfied with this room? and it passed in the affirmative. A very few were for the negative, and they were chiefly from Pennsylvania and New York." [22]
Leadership and Organization of the First Continental Congress
With the formal assembly established, the first order of business was the election of officers. The delegates elected Peyton Randolph as President, acknowledging his prior experience as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses. [23][24]
- James Duane, describing the proceedings, wrote:
"The Names of the Members were then called over; After which Mr Lynch proposed that we shoud elect a President or Chairman and named Mr Peyton Randolph Speaker of the Assembly of Virginia, who was unanimously approvd & placed in the Chair. A Question was then put what Title the Convention should assume & it was agred that it should be called the Congress."
The position of Secretary was filled by Charles Thomson, whose strong connections with liberal political circles and intellectual acumen made him a unanimous choice despite initial opposition from conservative delegates. Thomson would serve as Secretary for both the Continental and Confederation Congresses, earning a reputation as a key administrator of Revolutionary affairs. [24]
- James Duane:
"The next point was to fix on a Clerk or Secretary. Mr Thompson was proposed by Mr Lynch. Mr. Jay observed that he had Authority to say that one of the members of the Congress was willing to accept the Office & he conceived the preference was due to him [him being James Duane]. To which it was answered that such an appointment would deprive the Congress of a Member as he would be too much incumberd by the Duties of a Clerk to attend to the Trust for which he was chosen."
Early Legislative Actions and Rules
The Congress adopted a series of procedural resolutions to govern its operations on September 6, 1774:
- Each colony was allotted one vote regardless of size.
- Delegates could speak no more than twice on any issue without permission.
- Major questions could be postponed upon the request of any colony.
- Proceedings were deemed private, with a "pledge of secrecy" enforced. [25]
These foundational rules reflected the Congress's emphasis on unity and equality among the colonies while maintaining confidentiality for security reasons.
Naming the Congress: Origins in the Articles of Association
The designation “Continental Congress” was formally adopted on October 20, 1774, with the Articles of Association. This resolution not only unified the colonies in a coordinated boycott of British goods but also established the Congress as a governing body distinct from other provincial assemblies. The Articles’ opening paragraph reads:
"We, his majesty's most loyal subjects, the delegates of the several colonies of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts-Bay, Rhode-Island, Connecticut, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, the three lower counties of Newcastle, Kent and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, and South-Carolina, deputed to represent them in a Continental Congress, held in the city of Philadelphia, on the 5th day of September, 1774." [29]
The adoption of this name distinguished the Congress from numerous local and regional conventions, ensuring its position as a centralized body of colonial representation during the escalating conflict with Great Britain. [28]
Competing Terminology and the Emergence of “United Colonies of America”
While the term "Continental Congress" gained official status in 1774, other names, including “Colonies of America,” “United Colonies,” and “Colonies of North America,” appeared frequently in delegate correspondence and colonial newspapers. This linguistic fluidity reflected the evolving identity of the colonies.
For example, George Washington’s Commission as Commander-in-Chief (June 19, 1775) employed the term “United Colonies,” followed by a listing of the 13 constituent colonies. However, it was Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms that formally introduced the term “United Colonies of America” as part of a Congressional resolution:
"We the representatives of the United Colonies of America now sitting in General Congress, to all nations send greeting of setting forth the causes and necessity of their taking up arms." [30]
The Addition and Subsequent Removal of “North”
On July 6, 1775, Jefferson’s Declaration was edited and approved, with the word “North” added to create the name “United Colonies of North America.” [31] Shortly thereafter, Benjamin Franklin also utilized this phrasing in the first article of his Articles of Confederation:
"The Name of this Confederacy shall henceforth be the United Colonies of North America." [32]
However, by January 1776, both Congress and individual colonies had dropped the word “North,” reverting to the simpler designation, “United Colonies of America.” This final iteration reflected a more cohesive identity among the colonies and emphasized their unity in opposition to British authority.
For instance, a resolution from the Connecticut Assembly on January 16, 1776, stated:
"Resolved, By this Assembly, That Roger Sherman, Oliver Wolcott, Samuel Huntington, Titus Hosmer, and William Williams, Esqrs. be, and they are hereby appointed Delegates to represent this Colony at the General Congress of the United Colonies of America." [33]
Establishing the First Republic: The United Colonies of America
The First Continental Congress (later known as the United Colonies Continental Congress) convened from September 4, 1774, to July 2, 1776, laying the groundwork for what became the First United American Republic. Operating as a quasi-central government, this body passed critical resolutions and laws necessary to coordinate the colonies’ collective resistance to British rule.
Evidence of a Confederation Republic
The actions and policies enacted by the U.C. Continental Congress align with Montesquieu’s definition of a confederation republic, wherein smaller states unite for the mutual security of the larger entity. Key milestones include:
- April 19, 1775: British troops advancing on Lexington and Concord provoked the first military engagement of the Revolutionary War.
- May 10, 1775: Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga, securing critical supplies for the Continental Army.
- June 15, 1775: Congress appointed George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, marking the formal creation of the Continental Army.
- June 17, 1775: The Battle of Breed’s Hill demonstrated the colonies’ determination to resist British forces.
- July 6, 1775: Congress approved the Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms. [30]
- June 22, 1775: Congress issued $2 million in continental currency to finance the war effort.
- July 21, 1775: Franklin’s Articles of Confederation were introduced as a potential framework for governance. [32]
- November 13, 1775: Major General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal, advancing the war effort into Canada.
- December 31, 1775: General Montgomery was killed during the failed assault on Quebec City, marking a significant setback.
- March 17, 1776: Washington’s Continental Army forced British troops to evacuate Boston.
Conclusion
The First Continental Congress and its evolution into the United Colonies Continental Congress represent the first formal attempt at unified governance among the thirteen colonies. By adopting the name “United Colonies of America” and enacting measures that coordinated military, financial, and diplomatic efforts, this body established the foundation for what would become the First Republic. The name and actions of this Congress not only reflect the unity and resolve of the colonies but also set the stage for the subsequent republics that would follow.
Footnotes
- The Articles of Association, JCC, 1774–1789.
- Articles of Association, October 20, 1774.
- Jefferson, Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms, July 6, 1775.
- Jefferson writes, 1775. Manuscript letter, Library of Congress.
- Franklin’s Articles of Confederation, July 21, 1775.
- Journals of the Continental Congress, January 16, 1776.
Footnotes
- Montesquieu, De l'esprit des lois, cited in Hamilton, Federalist IX, November 21, 1787.
- Hamilton, Federalist IX, November 21, 1787.
- Madison, Federalist XXXIX, January 16, 1788.
- Georgia did not initially send delegates to the First Continental Congress.
- Articles of Association, October 20, 1774.
- Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776.
- Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution for Independence, July 2, 1776.
- New York approved independence on July 9, 1776.
- Articles of Confederation, November 15, 1777.
- Maryland ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781.
- Preamble to the U.S. Constitution, September 17, 1787.
- North Carolina ratified the Constitution on November 21, 1789; Rhode Island on May 29, 1790.
- Also known as the First Continental Congress.
- Articles of Association, JCC, 1774–1789.
- Also known as the Second Continental Congress.
- Declaration of Independence, JCC, 1774–1789.
- Articles of Confederation, JCC, 1774–1789.
- National Archives, Charters of Freedom.
- City Tavern Reconstruction, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- Diaries and letters of Robert Treat Paine, Samuel Ward, and Silas Deane.
- Carpenter’s Hall, National Register of Historic Places, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- John Adams, The Works of John Adams, Boston, 1865.
- Governor Robert Dinwiddie, letter to Peyton Randolph, October 23, 1754.
- The term “President” in 1774 meant "to preside."
- Journals of the Continental Congress, September 6, 1774.
- The Articles of Association, JCC, 1774–1789.
- Articles of Association, October 20, 1774.
- Jefferson, Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms, July 6, 1775.
- Jefferson writes, 1775. Manuscript letter, Library of Congress.
- Franklin’s Articles of Confederation, July 21, 1775.
- Journals of the Continental Congress, January 16, 1776.
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National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Independence Hall Class of 2017 students at Carpenters' Hall with the docent holding a Virginia Three Pound Note signed by the first President of the United Colonies Continental Congress Peyton Randolph AND a 1776 Autograph Letter Signed by Cyrus Griffin the last President of the United States in Congress Assembled. Carly is holding an original 1774 printing of the Articles of Association passed in this hall, which named the Continental Congress. – For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
Journals of the Continental Congress
United Colonies of North America - 1774
September 1774
September 5, 1774 (Monday):
The First Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia. Delegates from twelve colonies (all except Georgia) meet at Carpenter's Hall to address growing tensions with Britain. Peyton Randolph of Virginia is elected President of the Congress, and Charles Thomson of Pennsylvania is chosen as Secretary. The credentials of the delegates from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina are read and approved. The Congress aims to discuss the grievances against British policies and plan a collective response.
September 6, 1774 (Tuesday):
Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, arrives and attends the session. The Congress adopts rules of order to govern its proceedings, ensuring orderly debate and decision-making. It is agreed to begin each session with prayers, and Reverend Jacob Duché of Philadelphia is invited to officiate. Thomas Johnson, Jr., from Maryland, also attends for the first time.
September 7, 1774 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to draft a statement of the rights of the colonies, document the violations of those rights by British policies, and propose measures to restore them. Another committee is tasked with examining British statutes affecting colonial trade and manufacturing, to identify how those laws have harmed the colonies. Peyton Randolph, as President, is given the authority to adjourn Congress from day to day when no business is under consideration.
September 12, 1774 (Monday):
Matthew Tilghman, a delegate from Maryland, arrives to participate in the sessions. Congress continues to deliberate over colonial grievances and discuss the best way to approach negotiations with Britain, while still avoiding an outright call for independence.
September 14, 1774 (Wednesday):
William Hooper and Joseph Hewes, delegates from North Carolina, arrive, as does Henry Wisner from Orange County, New York. George Ross from Pennsylvania and John Alsop from New York also join the sessions. Delegates from Massachusetts present a report on the proceedings of a recent meeting held by committees from the towns of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, which had convened at Concord in late August to oppose the Intolerable Acts imposed by Britain.
September 17, 1774 (Saturday):
Richard Caswell from North Carolina joins the Congress. The resolutions passed by Suffolk County, Massachusetts, on September 6 (known as the Suffolk Resolves) are presented to Congress. The Suffolk Resolves denounce the Intolerable Acts and call for the colonies to resist British rule. Congress votes to approve the Suffolk Resolves, signaling strong support for Massachusetts in its confrontation with British authority. It also recommends that contributions from all colonies continue to provide relief to the people of Boston, suffering under the British-imposed blockade.
September 19, 1774 (Monday):
Congress refers the Suffolk Resolves to the committee appointed to state the rights of the colonies. This committee continues its work to articulate the specific rights the colonies believe are being violated and how they will defend them.
September 22, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress issues a recommendation to merchants in all colonies to cease placing orders for goods from Britain, part of a larger plan to institute a boycott of British imports. This is a significant step toward economic resistance. A report from the committee on colonial rights is presented to the Congress and read, and copies are made for distribution to the colonies.
September 24, 1774 (Saturday):
The report from the committee on colonial rights is considered by Congress, but the delegates decide to limit their focus to specific rights infringed since 1763 (the end of the French and Indian War), postponing discussion of broader American rights to a future date. A report on the infringements of American rights is brought in by the committee, but consideration is deferred as Congress shifts to deliberating on the means of restoring those rights.
September 26, 1774 (Monday):
John Herring from Orange County, New York, arrives and joins the proceedings. Congress resumes its consideration of measures for restoring colonial rights, focusing on nonviolent means of resistance to British policies, including economic boycotts.
September 27, 1774 (Tuesday):
After further deliberation, Congress adopts a resolution prohibiting the importation of all goods, wares, and merchandise from Great Britain or Ireland after December 1, 1774, and any products imported after that date are banned from use or sale in the colonies. This resolution is a key part of the broader non-importation agreement.
September 28, 1774 (Wednesday):
A resolution is introduced by Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, declaring that the colonies abhor the idea of becoming independent communities. Galloway also presents his Plan of Union, which proposes a federal system where the colonies would have a representative body that works with Parliament, while remaining under British rule. This plan is debated as an alternative to complete resistance.
September 29, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress continues to debate Galloway’s Plan of Union, but many delegates are skeptical of any plan that would leave colonial autonomy too dependent on the goodwill of the British government.
September 30, 1774 (Friday):
The debate on Galloway’s Plan of Union continues, but no final decision is reached. Congress adopts a resolution banning the exportation of goods from the colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies, effective September 1, 1775, unless the colonies' grievances are addressed before then. A committee is appointed to prepare a plan to enforce the non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation resolutions.
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| President Peyton Randolph |
October 1774
October 1, 1774 (Saturday):
Simon Boerum from Kings County, New York, attends for the first time. Congress continues to consider the means of restoring colonial rights. A committee is appointed to draft an address to King George III, requesting redress of the colonies' grievances.
October 3, 1774 (Monday):
Instructions are given to the committee drafting the address to the King. Congress discusses what should be included in the address, particularly which colonial grievances to emphasize.
October 4, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress continues to deliberate on the content of the address to the King, seeking a balance between asserting colonial rights and expressing loyalty to the Crown.
October 5, 1774 (Wednesday):
The discussion on the address to the King continues, and instructions are given to the committee on the address. Congress also receives an address from William Goddard, a publisher and supporter of colonial rights.
October 6, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress resumes consideration of means to restore American rights, with a letter from the Boston Committee of Correspondence laid before Congress. This letter highlights the dire situation in Massachusetts and urges Congress to take further action. Congress agrees to consider the letter the following day.
October 7, 1774 (Friday):
The letter from the Boston Committee of Correspondence is considered. A committee is appointed to draft a letter to British General Thomas Gage, who was enforcing the Intolerable Acts in Massachusetts. This letter seeks to address growing tensions in the colony.
October 8, 1774 (Saturday):
Congress further considers the letter from Boston and approves the opposition of Massachusetts inhabitants to the recent Parliamentary Acts. Congress declares that if these acts are enforced by military force, all of America should come to Massachusetts’ defense.
October 10, 1774 (Monday):
Congress continues its deliberations on the letter from Boston and discusses the possible evacuation of the people of Boston. They agree that if the people are forced to leave, they should be recompensed by all of America for their losses. Congress also advises Massachusetts residents to cease administering justice under British laws and to detest anyone who accepts authority under the new Parliamentary Acts.
October 11, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress drafts a letter to General Gage, advising the people of Boston to act peacefully toward British troops. A committee is appointed to prepare a memorial to the people of British America and an address to the people of Great Britain.
October 12, 1774 (Wednesday):
A plan for enforcing the Non-Importation, Non-Consumption, and Non-Exportation Agreements is presented by the committee, as Congress continues to deliberate on the rights and grievances of the colonies.
October 13, 1774 (Thursday):
The consideration of colonial rights and grievances continues, as Congress refines its strategy for resisting British policies and unifying the colonies around common goals.
October 14, 1774 (Friday):
Congress adopts resolutions formally declaring the rights and grievances of the colonies. These resolutions outline the specific rights the colonies claim and the violations committed by the British government since 1763. A letter from gentlemen in Georgia is read, discussing the situation in that colony.
October 15, 1774 (Saturday):
The Plan of Association is further considered. This plan outlines how the colonies will collectively enforce the boycott of British goods and work together to resist British policies.
October 17, 1774 (Monday):
John Dickinson of Pennsylvania joins the proceedings. Congress continues to refine the Plan of Association, which becomes a key document of collective colonial resistance.
October 18, 1774 (Tuesday):
The Plan of Association is amended and ordered to be transcribed for signing by all members. The association pledges the colonies to enforce a boycott of British goods. An address to the people of Great Britain is also presented to Congress.
October 19, 1774 (Wednesday):
The address to the people of Great Britain is considered, amended, and recommitted for further revision. A memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies is also reported to Congress for consideration.
October 20, 1774 (Thursday):
The Plan of Association is read and signed by all members of Congress. This marks a unified stance among the colonies to economically and politically resist British policies. Congress also continues deliberation on the memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies and considers other issues, including a letter from Quebec.
October 21, 1774 (Friday):
Congress considers an address to the people of Great Britain and a memorial to the inhabitants of the colonies. A committee is appointed to draft letters to the people of Quebec, and other British colonies such as Nova Scotia and Florida. Congress also resolves that any person in America who is seized and transported beyond the sea for trial, as per British policy, should be defended and that such actions should be resisted.
October 22, 1774 (Saturday):
Peyton Randolph, President of Congress, is unable to attend, and Henry Middleton of South Carolina is elected as the new President. Congress receives an address from Christopher Tully and orders its journals to be printed. Congress also resolves that a second Continental Congress will be held on May 10, 1775, unless colonial grievances are redressed before that date.
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| President Henry Middleton Painting by Benjamin West |
October 24, 1774 (Monday):
Congress receives and debates an address to the people of Quebec, which is then recommitted for further revision. The address to the King is also reported back to Congress.
October 25, 1774 (Tuesday):
Congress approves the address to the King and orders it to be engrossed. The address will be sent to the colonial agents in Britain, who are instructed to present it to the King and seek the assistance of British noblemen who support the cause of American liberty.
October 26, 1774 (Wednesday):
Congress finalizes the letter to the colonial agents and the address to the people of Quebec. The final address to the King is reviewed, and the list of colonial agents and delegates who attended Congress is compiled. Congress resolves that any attempt to transport Americans for trial in Britain should be met with resistance.
October 27, 1774 (Thursday):
Congress continues its final preparations and resolves additional procedural matters before adjourning.
October 28, 1774 (Friday):
The delegates formally dissolve the First Continental Congress, agreeing to reconvene on May 10, 1775, if their grievances are not addressed. This sets the stage for continued colonial resistance and, ultimately, the escalation toward revolution.
United Colonies of North America - 1775
May 1775
May 10, 1775 (Wednesday):
The Second Continental Congress convenes at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, following the convening of the First Continental Congress in 1774. Peyton Randolph is re-elected as President of the Congress, and Charles Thomson is re-elected as Secretary. The Congress immediately resumes discussions on how to respond to escalating tensions with Britain, which had worsened following the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April.
May 17, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to ban exports to British colonies that refuse to join the Continental Association. This resolution is aimed at colonies such as Canada and some Caribbean territories that had not aligned with the growing colonial resistance movement.
May 18, 1775 (Thursday):
News arrives at Congress of the successful capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point by American forces led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. These strategic forts, taken on May 10 and 11, provided the Americans with much-needed artillery for the war effort.
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| President John Hancock |
May 24, 1775 (Wednesday):
Peyton Randolph steps down as President of Congress to attend to his duties in Virginia, and John Hancock of Massachusetts is elected as the new President of the Continental Congress. Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in New England and a prominent leader in the resistance movement.
May 26, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to send a second petition to King George III, known as the Olive Branch Petition, in a final attempt to avoid full-scale war. At the same time, Congress instructs the colonies to prepare for defense, signaling that the colonies should arm themselves and fortify against British attacks.
June 1775
June 1, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves against launching any "expedition or incursion" into Canada at this time, reflecting the still uncertain military situation and reluctance to provoke Britain further without adequate preparation.
June 2, 1775 (Friday):
Congress receives a proposal from Massachusetts to take up civil government independently of Britain, reflecting the colony’s desire to establish governance as British authority collapses in New England. Massachusetts had been operating under the Intolerable Acts, which had severely curtailed its autonomy.
June 7, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to observe July 20 as a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer, asking the colonies to seek divine guidance and protection in the struggle for liberty.
June 9, 1775 (Friday):
Congress endorses Massachusetts' decision to assume civil authority, effectively recognizing the provincial convention in Massachusetts as the de facto government. This move allows Massachusetts to maintain order and governance in the absence of British control.
June 10, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to create a Continental Army to defend the colonies against British aggression. This decision marks the beginning of a unified colonial military force.
June 15, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints George Washington of Virginia as the commander in chief of the Continental Army. Washington, who had military experience from the French and Indian War, is chosen for his leadership qualities and to unify the southern and northern colonies under a single military command.
June 22, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to emit $2 million in Continental currency to finance the war effort. This is an essential step toward funding the nascent Continental Army and sustaining the colonies' defense.
June 27, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress approves an invasion of Canada, hoping to prevent British forces in Canada from launching attacks on the colonies and to gain support from French Canadians for the colonial cause.
July 1775
July 5, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress approves the Olive Branch Petition, a final appeal to King George III to intervene in Parliament and restore peace. The petition expresses loyalty to the king but protests Parliament’s oppressive policies.
July 6, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress approves the Declaration on the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, explaining to both the colonies and the world why the colonies had taken up arms against Britain. The declaration argues that the colonies are fighting in self-defense and are being forced into rebellion by British oppression.
July 8, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress approves an address to the inhabitants of Great Britain, explaining the colonies' grievances and justifying their actions. This address is meant to win the sympathy of the British public and pressure Parliament to change its policies.
July 12, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress organizes three departments for managing Indian affairs, recognizing the strategic importance of Native American alliances. These departments are tasked with maintaining relations with Native American tribes in the northern, middle, and southern regions.
July 21, 1775 (Friday):
Congress ignores Benjamin Franklin’s proposed Articles of Confederation, which would have created a formal confederation of the colonies with a central government. Congress was not yet ready to consider such a step toward independence.
July 27, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to establish a system of military hospitals to care for the sick and wounded soldiers in the Continental Army. This decision was crucial for improving medical care and survival rates among troops.
July 31, 1775 (Monday):
Congress adopts a response to British Prime Minister Lord North’s Conciliatory Resolution, which had offered some concessions to the colonies if they would agree to raise revenue for the Crown. Congress rejects the resolution as insufficient and continues to prepare for war.
August 1775
August 2, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress adjourns for the summer, agreeing to reconvene on September 5. The break allows delegates to return to their colonies to report on the proceedings and assess local conditions.
September 1775
September 13, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress reconvenes after the summer recess, with Georgia now fully represented in Congress for the first time. This strengthens the unity of the colonies as they move toward coordinated military and political action.
September 19, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a Secret Committee to purchase military supplies abroad. This marks a significant step toward securing foreign aid and weapons to support the Continental Army’s operations.
September 22, 1775 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to consider the state of trade in America, as the ongoing conflict with Britain disrupts commerce and colonial economies. The committee is tasked with assessing how to manage trade and ensure supply lines for both civilian and military needs.
September 27, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the publication of corrected journals to ensure the accuracy and transparency of its proceedings. Publishing the journals is crucial for keeping the public informed and fostering support for Congress’s actions.
September 29, 1775 (Friday):
Congress appoints a Committee of Conference to meet with General Washington and leaders of New England to coordinate military efforts and address the urgent needs of the Continental Army.
October 1775
October 3, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress receives a proposal from Rhode Island to build an American fleet, reflecting growing interest in establishing a Continental Navy to protect American ports and disrupt British shipping.
October 5, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress recommends that General Washington intercept British supply ships. This recommendation is part of a broader strategy to weaken British forces by cutting off their access to provisions.
October 6, 1775 (Friday):
Congress recommends that provincial governments arrest any persons deemed a danger to "the liberties of America." This directive aims to prevent Loyalists and other enemies of the revolution from undermining the colonial cause.
October 7, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a report on the fortification of the Hudson River, a strategically important waterway that the British could use to divide the colonies. Fortifying the Hudson River was crucial to protecting New York and preventing British advances.
October 13, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to fit out armed vessels, marking the formal establishment of the Continental Navy. A Naval Committee is appointed to oversee the construction and outfitting of ships, the first step toward challenging British naval supremacy.
October 17, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints John Morgan as director general of hospitals, replacing Benjamin Church, who had been arrested for corresponding with the British. Congress also appoints a committee to estimate damages inflicted by British military actions on colonial property and communities.
October 24, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adjourns to attend the funeral of Peyton Randolph, the first President of the Continental Congress. Randolph had passed away in October, and his death marked the loss of a prominent Virginia leader.
October 26, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress publishes a resolution authorizing the export of goods in exchange for arms, recognizing the colonies' need for weapons to sustain the war effort. This export strategy was crucial for securing foreign support.
October 30, 1775 (Monday):
Congress expands the authorization for the Continental Navy by increasing the number of ships and appoints additional members to the Naval Committee. This move strengthens the naval capacity of the colonies and signals the importance of maritime warfare.
November 1775
November 1, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress reaffirms the general embargo on exports, extending the embargo explicitly to March 1, 1776. Congress also commends provincial authorities for ignoring British parliamentary trade exemptions designed to divide the colonies.
November 2, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to the north to confer with General Philip Schuyler, the commander of American forces in the northern theater. Congress also receives a report from the Committee of Conference, which had met with General Washington.
November 3, 1775 (Friday):
Congress recommends the formation of a new provincial government in New Hampshire, similar to its earlier recommendation for Massachusetts. This reflects the broader breakdown of British authority in the colonies.
November 4, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts resolutions for reconstituting General Washington’s army in Massachusetts and for the defense of South Carolina and Georgia, both of which were facing the threat of British attacks.
November 9, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a new oath of secrecy for its members to protect sensitive military and diplomatic discussions. Congress also publishes a report that the king had refused to receive the Olive Branch Petition, signaling the end of hopes for reconciliation.
November 10, 1775 (Friday):
Congress adopts a plan to promote the manufacture of saltpetre, a key ingredient in gunpowder, and orders the enlistment of the first two battalions of Continental Marines, marking the establishment of the Continental Marines (now the U.S. Marine Corps).
November 13, 1775 (Monday):
Congress orders the publication of new "Rules and Regulations" for the Continental Army, providing a formal code of conduct for soldiers and officers.
November 15, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress receives news of the American victory at Fort St. Johns in Canada, a key strategic point on the route to Montreal, which boosts morale among the delegates.
November 16, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts resolves to improve delegate attendance, addressing concerns about absenteeism during critical discussions. Congress also adopts regulations for the treatment of prisoners of war.
November 22, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes exemptions to the export ban for Bermuda, recognizing the island’s unique strategic importance in the Atlantic trade network.
November 23, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress adopts resolves to improve peaceful relations with the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, aiming to secure Native American neutrality or support in the war.
November 25, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress adopts regulations for prize cases, outlining how captured enemy ships and their goods should be handled. This helps to formalize the rules of naval warfare and privateering.
November 28, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts "Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies," establishing a formal legal framework for naval operations. Congress also adopts measures for the defense of North Carolina, which was facing British military threats.
November 29, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a Committee of Secret Correspondence to handle foreign diplomatic and intelligence matters. It also resolves to emit $3,000,000 in Continental currency to continue funding the war effort. News of the capture of Montreal by American forces is also received.
December 1775
December 2, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress sends Benjamin Harrison to Maryland to promote the defense of the Chesapeake Bay, a critical area for trade and military logistics.
December 4, 1775 (Monday):
Congress recommends the formation of a new provincial government in Virginia, similar to the new governments established in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Congress also appoints a committee to dissuade the New Jersey Assembly from separately petitioning the king, urging unity among the colonies.
December 6, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress publishes a response to King George III’s August 23 proclamation, which had declared the colonies in a state of rebellion. This response reinforces the colonies’ grievances and their determination to resist British rule.
December 8, 1775 (Friday):
Congress resolves to confine John Connolly, a Loyalist conspirator who had been plotting with British Governor Lord Dunmore to attack western Virginia. This resolution highlights Congress’s growing concern about internal threats from Loyalists.
December 13, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the construction of 13 ships for the Continental Navy, a significant expansion of naval forces aimed at defending American ports and disrupting British supply lines.
December 14, 1775 (Thursday):
Congress appoints the Marine Committee, which will oversee naval operations, shipbuilding, and the recruitment of sailors for the Continental Navy.
December 15, 1775 (Friday):
Congress receives a plan for creating a committee that will continue to sit during the recess of Congress, ensuring that governance and military decisions can be made even when Congress is not in session.
December 20, 1775 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends a cessation of hostilities between Connecticut and Pennsylvania settlers in the Wyoming Valley, where a long-standing territorial dispute was threatening to destabilize the region.
December 22, 1775 (Friday):
Congress authorizes an attack on British forces in Boston and appoints Esek Hopkins as the commander in chief of the Continental Navy.
December 26, 1775 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a plan for the redemption of Continental bills of credit, ensuring the financial stability of the Continental currency.
December 29, 1775 (Friday):
Congress adopts resolutions for importing and manufacturing salt, a critical commodity for preserving food and maintaining army provisions.
December 30, 1775 (Saturday):
Congress recommends that the Secret Committee negotiate with Pierre Penet and Emanuel de Pliarne, French arms dealers, to secure European arms and ammunition for the Continental Army. This is an important step toward securing foreign aid.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
Commander-in-Chief United States of America
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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